BIOLOGY LESSON = CIRCULATORY SYSTEM COMPLETE NOTES AND IMPORTANT POINTS

 Blood, tissue fluid and lymph are the three main fluids in our body. 

 Blood transports absorbed digested food, respiratory gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), excretory materials (urea, excess salt, etc.), hormones, etc. 

 Blood distributes heat and forms a clot at any cut to prevent loss of blood. 

 Plasma is the liquid part and the RBCs, WBCs and platelets are the cellular elements. 

 RBCs (when mature) are biconcave and enucleated. 

(i) Their average life is 120 days; old and dead ones get destroyed in the liver and the spleen, their iron part is retained in the liver and the rest is excreted as bile pigments in the gut. 

(ii) Carry oxygen as oxyhaemoglobin (unstable) which readily dissociates to deliver oxygen to tissues.

 WBCs (leucocytes) protect from disease by 

(i) engulfing bacteria (phagocytosis) and 

(ii) producing antitoxins and antibodies to neutralise poisonous substances. Can squeeze out through capillary walls (diapedesis) to fight germs. 

Are produced in bone marrow and lymph nodes with an average life of about two weeks. 

Two major categories of WBCs : –

– Granular WBCs are of three types – Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils. –

– Non-granular WBCs are of two types – Lymphocytes, Monocytes. 

 Blood platelets (thrombocytes) are produced in bone marrow. Their average life is 3-4 days. They get destroyed in the spleen. They initiate clotting (coagulation) at the site of bleeding. They produce thromboplastin, which in the presence of calcium, converts prothrombin of plasma into thrombin. This in turn, converts soluble fibrinogen of plasma into threads of fibrin that entangle corpuscles to form a clot. The remainder, clear liquid, is serum. 

 Blood groups are important to know for blood transfusion. Blood group "0" is universal donor and blood group "AB" is universal recipient. Blood group Rh (positive or negative) is, in addition, particularly important in pregnancy cases. 

 Heart beat occurs in two main phases – systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation). 

 There are three valves in the heart to regulate the unidirectional flow of blood. Sharp closing of these valves produces the "Lub" and "Dub" sounds. 
(i) Bicuspid (Mitral) between the left atrium and the left ventricle 
(ii) Tricuspid between the right atrium and the right ventricle 

(iii) Semilunar valves between ventricles and aorta and between ventricles and pulmonary artery 

 There is a double circulation of blood in our heart – pulmonary (lungs) circulation and systemic (body) circulation. 

 Arteries have thick muscular walls and a narrow lumen, and the blood in them flows with jerks (pulse). 

–– Major arteries include : (i) pulmonary (to lungs), aorta giving branches to the head (carotid), the arms (subclavian), the chest (intercostal), the liver (hepatic), stomach, etc. (mesenteric), and the kidneys (renal) 

 Veins have thin muscular walls with valves and a wider lumen, and the blood in them flows continuously. 

–– Major veins include veins from the head and the upper body (superior vena cava), 

–– the arms (subclavian) and the lower body (inferior vena cava)

–– Hepatic portal veins collect blood from the stomach and the intestine and pour it into the liver by means of capillaries which reunite to form the hepatic vein.

 Capillaries are very narrow tubes with no muscles and allow diffusion of substances into and from the tissues. 

 Lymphatic system includes lymph vessels, lymph nodes, lymph glands such as tonsils and lymph organs like the spleen. 

 Spleen is the largest lymphatic organ – it acts as blood reservoir, produces lymphocytes, destroys worn out RBCs and produces RBCs (in embryo). 

 The main function of lymph is defence (by lymphocytes) against germs.

QUESTIONS : 

Q.1. What is circulatory System? 

Ans. Blood is the circulating fluid, the blood flow is powered by a muscular pump called the heart, which together with the vast network of blood vessels constitutes the circular system or cardio - vascular system 

Q.2. Name the components of circulatory system? 

Ans. Blood, Lymph, Blood vessels, and heart.

 

Q.3. What is Blood? 
Ans. Blood is a fluid connective tissue that performs a number of critical functions. 

Q.4. State the function of the blood? OR Function of the circulatory system. 
Ans. Blood is a liquid connective tissue and thus performs functions such as 
        1. Transportation of respiratory gases, hormones, nutrients. 
        2. Regulation of body temperature (thermoregulation). 
        3. Prevention against blood loss (through the clotting process). 
        4. Protection against invasion of foreign microbes through antibody and anti - toxin production (immunity) 

Q.5. What is blood composed of? 
Ans. The blood is composed of two main components 
         a) Plasma and 
         b) Blood corpuscles 

Q.6. What are blood corpuscles. 
Ans. They consist of the cellular part of the blood, about 42 - 45% of blood is made up of blood corpuscles, they are Erythrocytes (RBC’s), Leucocytes (WBC’s) and Thrombocytes (platelets). 

Q.7. What is blood plasma? 
Ans. The blood plasma is the fluid part, about 55 - 58% of blood is made up of plasma which contains, 90% water, 7 - 8% Blood proteins, 1% salt and other substances like hormones, respiratory gases, nutrients and excretory products. 

Q.8. What are erythrocytes? 
Ans. They are red blood cells, devoid of nucleus. They contain respiratory pigments haemoglobin which imparts red colour to blood. 

Q.9. Where are red blood cells produced and destroyed? 
Ans. The red blood cells are produced in the marrow of long bones, while in embryonic stage they are formed in the liver and spleenThe worn out RBCs are destroyed in the spleen, liver and bone marrow.

 
Q.10. Give functions of erythrocytes. 
Ans. The functions of erythrocytes are as follows.

1. To transport oxygen to the cells and tissue of the body, with the help of haemoglobin, in the form of oxyhaemoglobin. 

2. It also carries away carbon dioxide to the lungs for elimination. 

3. They impart red colour to the blood. 

Q.11. What are Leucocytes? 

Ans. Leucocytes are WBCs are nucleated cells, ranging from 8 to 20 (microns). The main types are agranulocytes and granulocytes. They are the defence cells of the body. 

Q.12. Explain the types of Leucocytes (WBCs). 

Ans. There are two types of WBCs : 

         A] Agranulocytes : These have clear cytoplasm. They develop from lymph nodes and red bone marrow. They are of two types lymphocytes and monocytes. 

         (i) Lymphocytes : Round nucleus, phagocytosis, antigen - antibody reaction (immunity) 

         (ii) Monocytes : Kidney shaped nucleus, phagocytosis. 

         B] Granulocytes : These develop from red bone marrow, have granules in the cytoplasm and possess lobed nuclei. Three kinds of granulocytes are present, they are Eosinophils, Basophils and Neutrophils. 

        (i) Eosinophils : The nucleus is bilobed and the lobes are connected by strands. The cytoplasmic granules get stain with red acidic dyes like Eosin. 

        (ii) Basophils : The nucleus is large, irregular in shape. They stain with basic dyes like methylene blue. 

        (iii) Neutrophils : They are multilobed i.e., have 2 to 6 lobes. The granules stain with neutral dyes.

Q.13. Enlist the functions of leucocytes Functions of leucocytes 

Ans a) Phagocytosis : Neutrophils and monocytes engulf and destroys the foreign bodies entering the blood. 

b) Diapedesis: They move in amoeboid fashion and engulf microbes by squeezing out of blood capillaries. 

c) Production of antibodies and antitoxins : Lymphocytes are involved in the production of antibodies while basophils and eosinophils produce anti-toxins. 

d) Immunity: Immunity is the ability of an organism to resist infections. 

Q.14. What is diapedesis? 

Ans. Most of the WBCs are amoeboid and can produced pseudopodia with which they can squeeze through the walls of the capillaries into the tissues . This is called diapedesis. 

Q.15. What are platelets (Thrombocytes)? 

Ans. Blood platelets are oval or special cells numbering between 2,50,000 and 4,00,000 / mm3 , lifespan is 2 – 3 days. They are produced in Red bone marrow from giant cells like Megakaryocytes. Human and mammalian platelets do not have nuclei. 

Q.16. Enlist the functions of blood platelets. 

Ans. (a) Clotting of blood 

(b) Phagocytosis

 (c) Prevent undue loss of blood

 (d) Healing of wounds 

Q.17. What are anticoagulants?

 Ans. Anticoagulants like heparin are present in blood which prevents blood clot. 

Q.18. What is blood blister? 

Ans. Some times an injury or a sharp pinch can cause the blood to clot inside blood vessels. This is called blood blister and is visible on the skin surface as a bluish mark. 

Q.19. Enlist the step in clotting of blood? 

Ans. Blood clotting prevents blood loss when blood vessels are damaged. This clotting is achieved in 3 steps. 

        (i) The platelets release a chemical compound thromboplastin at the site of injury. 

        (ii) Thromboplastin converts the inactive prothrombin present in plasma into active thrombin in the presence of Vit.K and calcium. 

        (iii) The thrombin converts the soluble fibrinogen into insoluble fibrin fibres.  

        These fibrin fibres form a mesh in which dead cells of the blood are entrapped and a thrombus (clot) is formed, which prevents the further loss of blood and helps in healing of wounds. 

Q.20. Mention the abnormalities of Blood cells. 

Ans. a) If the number of RBC’s increase to a high level condition is called Polycythemia. 

b) If the number of WBC’s increase above the number of RBCs the condition is called Leukemia. 

c) If RBC number decreases the condition is called Erythropenia 

d) If the number of WBC’s fall the condition is called Leucopenia. 

Q.21. How many blood groups are seen in a human beings? Explain it in brief. 

Ans. There are four blood groups in human beings. 

a) Blood group A : Individuals with agglutinogen A 

b) Blood group B : Individual with agglutinogen B 

c) Blood group AB : Both agglutinogen are present 

d) Blood group O : Neither of agglutinogen are present 

Q.22. What are blood groups? 

Ans. A groups of people having blood with similar agglutinogen (antigen) on its RBC’s are said to belong to the same blood group. 

Q.23. What are Rhesus factor? 

Ans. It is a substance present in the red blood cells of most people. Such people are said to be Rhesus positive (Rh positive) People who do not have this substance in their blood, are said to be Rhesus negative (Rh negative) 

Q.24. What are blood vessels ? Explain the type of blood vessels. 

Ans. Blood vessels form a network of tubes that carry blood away from the heart, transport it to the tissues of the body and then return it to the heart. 

There are three main types :

1. Arteries : Arteries carry blood from the heart to the tissues. The aorta is the largest artery in human body, they further divide to form still smaller tubes called arterioles. Arteries generally carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary artery. The wall of the arteries are thick and muscular being composed of elastic and collagen fibers. The arteries are generally deep seated and the blood flows through the arteries under pressure. 

2. Veins : Veins carry blood towards the heart. The blood flowing through them is generally deoxygenated except pulmonary vein. The walls of the veins are much thinner than the arteries. Many veins, especially those in the limbs, which bring blood against the force of gravity contain valves that prevent backflow. 

3. Capillaries : They are thin-walled microscopic blood vessels made upto single layer of epithelial tissue. Capillaries branch to form an extensive network throughout the tissue. Its branching nature helps to increase the surface area and the thin walls allow rapid exchange of materials between blood and tissue cells.

Q.25. What is Heart Sound? 

Ans. The first sound ‘LUBB’ is produced when the atrio-ventricular valves gets closed sharply at the start of ventricular systole. The second sound “DUP” is produced when at the begining of ventricular diastole, the semilunar valves at the roots of aorta and pulmonary artery get closed. 

Q.26. What is a pulse? 

Ans. Pulse is a wave of distension and recoil. It is felt in some of the superficial artery such as the radial artery of the wrist. 

Q.27. What is hepatic portal vein? 

Ans. The hepatic portal vein is formed by the union of the capillaries in the liver. The vein carries the blood which contains nutrients absorbed from the alimentary canal to the liver. The liver checks these substances before they pass into general circulation by detoxification and deamination.

Q.28. Describe the valves present in the heart. 

Ans. Valves of the Heart Valves are muscular flaps which prevent the blood which has once passed through it, to flow back through it. The opening and closing of valve is due to pressure difference across the valves. 

Two types of heart valves are distinguished - the atria-ventricular valves and the semi-lunar valves. 

1. The atrio-ventricular valves: These valves separate the atria from the ventricles. They consist of fibrous tissues that grow out of the walls of the heart. The pointed ends of the flaps (or cusps) project into the ventricles. Tendon-like fibrous cords called chordae tendinae connect the pointed ends to small conical projections called papillary muscles, located on the inner surface of the ventricles. 

a. Tricuspid valve (Right atrio-ventricular valve): The right side of the heart possess the tricuspid valve (with three cusps) which prevents the backflow of the blood into the right auricle during contraction of the left ventricle. 

b. Bicuspid valve (Mitral): Located on the left side of the heart, the bicuspid valve consisting to two flaps prevents the backflow of the blood into the left atrium during contraction of the ventricle. 

2. Semilunar valves : These have three half-moon-shaped folds (pockets). Located in the arteries leaving the heart, they prevent the blood from flowing back into the heart. 

a. Pulmonary semilunar valve: This valve lies in the opening where the pulmonary trunk leaves the right ventricle. It prevents the backflow of the blood into the right ventricle during its relaxation. 

b. Aortic semilunar valve: Located at the opening between the left ventricle and aorta, this valve prevents the flow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle during its relaxation.

Q.29. State the two phases of cardiac cycle. 

Ans. The cardiac cycle comprises of two phases, the systole and the diastole. 

(a) The systole: This is the phase during which the heart contracts. During systole, the auricle sends blood into the ventricles. Time taken for arterial systole is 0.1 — 0.16 sec. and ventricular systole is 0.3 secs. 

(b) The diastole: This is the phase of rest or relaxation of the heart muscles. Arterial diastole lasts for 0.7 - 0.76 sec and ventricular diastole lasts for 0.5 — 0.56 sec. The entire cardiac cycle lasts for about 0.85 seconds. 

Q.30. State a point of difference between Systole and Diastole. 

Ans. Systole : It is phase of contraction of a chamber of the heart. 

Diastole : It is the phase of relaxation of a chamber of the heart.

Q.31. What is Cardiac Cycle? 

Ans. (a) Blood flows through the heart with a definite pattern of systoles and diastoles. The whole sequence of events in the heart beat constitute a cardiac cycle. 

(b) It lasts for about 0.8 secs. 

Q.32. How many times per day does the human heart beat ? 

Ans. 72 beats per minute. 

72 × 60 mins x 24 hours = 1,03,680 (more than one lakh times per day)

Q.33. What is Double Circulation? 

Ans. Heart is said to have double circulation because the blood passes through the heart twice. 

1. It first leaves throught the right ventricle, goes to the lungs, and then returns to the heart (left artium) 

2. Leaves through the left ventricle, circulates through the body, and again returns to the heart (right atrium) 

Q.34. What is Pulmonary Circulation? 

Ans. Pulmonary Circulation: The pulmonary circulation is maintained by the right side of the heart. It begins in the right ventricle which expels the blood into the pulmonary trunk. The blood flows into the vascular system of the lungs, becomes oxygenated and returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins.

Q.35. What is Systemic Circulation? 

Ans. This circulation is maintained by the left ventricle which sends the blood into the aorta. Two of the several sub-division of the systemic circulation are coronary (cardiac) circulation and hepatic portal circulation. 

Q.36. Give Chambers of the Heart? 

Ans. Chambers of the Heart The interior of the heart is divided into four chambers which receive the circulating blood. 

1. The Atria (auricles): The two superior chambers are called the right and left atria. The atria are seperated by a partition called the inter-atrial septum. Located in the upper wall of the right atrium is the sino-atrial node (SAN) or the pacemaker. The pacemaker is a specialized tissue which regulates the contraction and relaxation of the heart muscles. 

2. The Ventricles : The two inferior chambers of the heart are the right and left ventricles. They are seperated from each other by an interventricular septum. The atria and ventricles are separated by connective tissue that also form the valves. 

Q.37. What is Lymph ? Give its functions. 

Ans. Lymph 

1. Lymph is a colourless fluid derived from the blood. 

2. It is similar in composition to plasma and contains lymphocytes, blood proteins, waste matters but no erythrocytes. 

Function of Lymph 

1. Lymph provides a free exchange of substances between the blood and protoplasm of the cells. 

2. It collects waste materials from the cells and brings them to the blood. 

3. It transports nutrients to the tissues. 

4. Lymphocytes of lymph play an important role in fighting against infection. 

5. Lymph maintains the body temperature distributing the body heat. 

6. It absorbs fats from the villi of small intestine and supplies it to the venous blood. 

Q.38. Describe the internal structure of the Heart / Its conducting system. 

Ans. Conducting System Human heart is an autonomous organ controlled by autonomic nervous system and flow of blood into it. It is a highly rhythmic organ controlled by a precise conducting system. 

The system consists of the following components : 

A) Sinu-Auricular node (SAN) : It is a highly sensitive node situated in the right auricle attached to the posterior wall of the auricle. It lies below the opening of superior vena cava. It generates a wave of contraction after receiving adequatic amount of blood (70ml.) 

B) Auriculo-Ventricular node (AVN) : It is another sensitive node present in the right auricle attached with auricule ventricular septum. It receives the wave of contraction and transfer the same to Bundle of His. 

C) Bundle of His : It is bundle of conducting fibres originating from AVN. It lies in the inter ventricular septum. It divides into 2 lateral branches right and left. Both the branches reach to the heart apex and travels into the lateral wall of the ventricle. 

D) Purkinje System : It is an anstomosing (dense) network of conducting fibres arising from the Bundle of His. It lies in the lateral wall of ventricles. The conducting system controls the flow of blood through various chambers of the heart. It regulates the flow of blood and generates adequate blood pressure. It controls the heart beat. 

Q.39. Describe the Heart Beat in Humans ? 

Ans. Heart Beat It is also known as cardiac cycle. It is completed in 0.8sec. It is completed in the following 3 Phases: 

Phase - I : Also known as auricular systole, it is completed in 0.1sec. In this phase the auricle contract and push the blood into respective ventricles. 

Phase- II : Also known as vertricular systole. It is completed in 0.3sec. The ventricles contract and push the blood into pulmonary artey and aorta. The right ventricle pushes the blood in pulmonary artey whereas the left ventricle pushes the blood in aorta. 

Phase - III : Also known as general pause. It is completed in 0.4sec. In this phase the auricle and ventricle relax to allow the blood to be collected in the auricles. 

Q.40. What is Heart Rate ? 

Ans. It is the total number of beats per minute. In a normal healthy human it is found to be 72 times per minute.

MERCHANT OF VENICE ACT 4 SUMMARY

In Venice, the Court convenes for Antonio’s trial. The duke of Venice greets Antonio and expresses pity for him, calling Shylock an inhuman monster who can summon neither pity nor mercy. Antonio says he knows the duke has done all that he can to lawfully counter Shylock’s malicious intentions, and that since nothing else can be done, Antonio will respond to  Shylock’s rage “with a quietness of spirit” (IV.i.11). The duke summons Shylock into the courtroom and addresses him, saying that he believes that Shylock means only to frighten Antonio by extending this drama to the brink of performance. No one, the duke says, believes that Shylock actually means to inflict such a horrible penalty on Antonio, who has already suffered the loss of his ships. Shylock reiterates his intentions and says that should the court deny him his right, the city’s very laws and freedoms will be forfeit. Shylock offers no explanation for his insistence other than to say that certain hatreds, like certain passions, are lodged deep within a person’s heart. Shylock hates Antonio, and for him that is reason enough.

Bassanio, who has arrived from Belmont, attempts to argue with Shylock, but Antonio tells him that his efforts are for naught. Hatred and predation, Antonio suggests, come as naturally to some men as they do to the wolf. Bassanio offers Shylock six thousand ducats, twice the amount of the original loan, but Shylock turns down the offer, saying he would not forfeit his bond for six times that sum. When the duke asks Shylock how he expects to receive mercy when he offers none, Shylock replies that he has no need for mercy, as he has done nothing wrong. Just as the slave-owning Christians of Venice would refuse to set their human property free, Shylock will not relinquish the pound of flesh that belongs to him.

The duke says that he has sent messages to the learned lawyer, Doctor Bellario, asking him to come and decide on the matter. News comes that a messenger has arrived from Bellario, and Salarino runs off to fetch him. Meanwhile, Bassanio tries, without much success, to cheer up the despairing Antonio. Nerissa enters, disguised as a lawyer’s clerk, and gives the duke a letter from Bellario. Shylock whets his knife, anticipating a judgment in his favor, and Gratiano accuses him of having the soul of a wolf. Shylock ignores these slurs and states resolutely, “I stand here for law” (IV.i.141). The duke alludes to the fact that Bellario’s letter mentions a learned young lawyer named Balthasar, and orders the disguised Nerissa to admit the young man to the court. The duke then reads the letter in its entirety. In it, Bellario writes that he is ill and cannot come to court, but that he has sent the learned young Balthasar to judge in his stead.

Portia enters, disguised as Balthasar. The duke greets her and asks whether she is familiar with the circumstances of the case. Portia answers that she knows the case well, and the duke calls Shylock and Antonio before her. Portia asks Antonio if he admits to owing Shylock money. When Antonio answers yes, Portia concludes that the Jew must be merciful. Shylock asks why he must show mercy, and, in one of the play’s most famous speeches, Portia responds that “[t]he quality of mercy is not strained,” but is a blessing to both those who provide and those who receive it (IV.i.179). Because mercy is an attribute of God, Portia reasons, humans approach the divine when they exercise it. Shylock brushes aside her pretty speech, however, by reiterating his demands for justice and revenge.

Portia asks whether Antonio is able to pay the money, and Bassanio offers Shylock twice the sum owed. If need be, Bassanio says, he is willing to pay the bond ten times over, or with his own life. Bassanio begs the court to bend the law slightly in order to exonerate Antonio, reasoning that such a small infraction is a little wrong for a great right. Portia replies, however, that the law shall not be broken—the decrees of Venice must stand. Shylock joyfully extols Portia’s wisdom, and gives her the bond for inspection. She looks it over, declares it legal and binding, and bids Shylock to be merciful. Shylock remains deaf to reason, however, and Portia tells Antonio to prepare himself for the knife. She orders Shylock to have a surgeon on hand to prevent the merchant from bleeding to death, but Shylock refuses because the bond stipulates no such safeguard.

Antonio bids Bassanio farewell. He asks his friend not to grieve for him and tells Bassanio that he is happy to sacrifice his life, if only to prove his love. Both Bassanio and Gratiano say that, though they love their wives, they would give them up in order to save Antonio. In a pair of sarcastic asides, Portia and Nerissa mutter that Bassanio’s and Gratiano’s wives are unlikely to appreciate such sentiments. Shylock is on the verge of cutting into Antonio when Portia suddenly reminds him that the bond stipulates a pound of flesh only, and makes no allowances for blood. She urges Shylock to continue collecting his pound of flesh, but reminds him that if a drop of blood is spilled, then he will be guilty of conspiring against the life of a Venetian citizen and all his lands and goods will be confiscated by the state. Stunned, Shylock hastily backpedals, agreeing to accept three times the sum, but Portia is insistent, saying that Shylock must have the pound of flesh or nothing. When Shylock finds out that he cannot even take the original three thousand ducats in place of the pound of flesh, he drops the case, but Portia stops him, reminding him of the penalty that noncitizens face when they threaten the life of a Venetian. In such a case, Portia states, half of Shylock’s property would go to the state, while the other half would go to the offended party—namely, Antonio. Portia orders Shylock to beg for the duke’s mercy.

The duke declares that he will show mercy: he spares Shylock’s life and demands only a fine, rather than half of the Jew’s estate. Shylock claims that they may as well take his life, as it is worthless without his estate. Antonio offers to return his share of Shylock’s estate, on the condition that Shylock convert to Christianity and bequeath all his goods to Jessica and Lorenzo upon his death. Shylock consents and departs, saying simply, “I am not well” 

After Shylock leaves, the duke invites Portia, still in the disguise of a young lawyer, to dinner. Portia declines, saying that she must leave immediately for Padua. As she leaves, the duke tells Antonio to reward the young law clerk, since it was he who saved Antonio’s life. Bassanio thanks Portia, though he does not see through her disguise, and offers her the money he brought with him in order to pay off Shylock. Portia declines the gift and says that having delivered Antonio from Shylock’s clutches is payment enough. Bassanio insists that she take some token from him, and she eventually agrees. Portia asks Antonio for his gloves and Bassanio for his ring, which she herself gave Bassanio on the condition that he never part with it. Bassanio pulls his hand away, calling the ring a trifle and claiming that he will not dishonor the judge by giving him such a lowly gift. Instead, Bassanio offers to find the most valuable ring in Venice, but Portia remains firm, and demands the trifle or nothing. When Bassanio admits that the ring was a gift from his wife, who made him promise never to part with it, Portia claims that the excuse is convenient and used by many men to hold onto possessions they would rather not lose. With that, she takes her leave. Antonio urges Bassanio to let the law clerk have the ring, saying that he should value Antonio’s love and the gentleman’s worth more than his wife’s orders. Bassanio gives in and sends Gratiano to run after Portia and present her with the ring. Antonio and Bassanio then leave for Antonio’s house to plan their trip to Belmont.

BIOLOGY COMPLETE SEM 2 SMART NOTES

The Circulatory System 

NEED FOR TRANSPORT INSIDE THE BODY 

Every organ in our body requires the involvement of the circulating body fluids. 

For example : 

• The digestive system digests and absorbs nutrients which are needed to be transported to every cell of the body. 

• The respiratory system draws in air, and the oxygen picked up from it in the lungs has to be transported to all parts of the body. Similarly, the CO₂ collected from the entire body has to be carried to the lungs to be exhaled out of the body. 

• All the extra water, excess salts, and the nitrogenous wastes such as urea have to be removed from different parts and have to be sent to the excretory system to be thrown out of the body. 

• Hormones secreted by the endocrine system have to be carried throughout the body by the circulating blood to act wherever required, and so on. 

FLUIDS IN OUR BODY 

There are three principal fluids in our body : 

(i) Blood, contained in the heart and in the blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries) of the circulatory system. 

(ii) Tissue fluid, occupying spaces between cells in the organs. 

(iii) Lymph, which is contained within lymph vessels and lymphatic organs such as the spleen and the tonsils. 

PROPERTIES OF BLOOD: THE BLOOD 

i) Never Stationary - Blood is always in motion from the heart to the arteries and back through the veins. 

ii) Color - The blood is a somewhat thick fluid, bright red when taken from an artery or dark red when taken from a vein. 

iii) Volume -An average adult human has 5 to 6 litres of blood by volume in his body. 

iv) Taste - saltish  Perhaps we have all "tasted" our blood as in the case when there is a cut in the tongue or bleeding from the gums. 

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD 

The main functions of the blood in our body can be treated under two broad headings: 

(A) Transport By Blood: 

(Transport of digested food, oxygen, carbon dioxide, excretory substances, hormones, body heat). 

1. Transport of digested food 

2. Transport of oxygen 

3. Transport of carbon dioxide 

4. Transport of excretory material 

5. Distribution of hormones 

6. Distribution of heat 

B. PROTECTION BY BLOOD: 

1. Blood forms a clot wherever there is a cut in a blood vessel. The clot serves to prevent 

(i) further loss of blood 

(ii) the entry of disease-causing germs. 

COMPOSITION OF BLOOD 

The blood consists of: 

i) Plasma - fluid part, constitutes 55-60 per cent of blood. 

ii) Cellular elements - red and white cells, and platelets, 40-45 per cent of blood. 

PLASMA - 

The plasma is a light-yellow coloured, alkaline liquid. It mainly consists of water, proteins, inorganic salts and other substances. The plasma from which the protein fibrinogen has been removed is called serum. 

Cellular Elements: 

The formed or cellular elements of the blood (i.e. shaped structures visible under magnification) are of three categories: 

(1) Red blood cells (erythrocytes) 

(2) White blood cells (leukocytes) 

(3) Blood platelets (thrombocytes) 

(1) Red Blood Cells (RBCs): 

i) These are minute biconcave disclike structures flat in the centre and thick and rounded at the periphery. 

ii) These are very small about 7 micron in diameter (1 micron = onethousandth of a millimetre and is represented by the symbol “µ”) 

iii) The small size plus the concavities on either side provide a large surface area which makes them very efficient in absorbing oxygen. 

HAEMOGLOBIN is the effective chemical constituent of RBCs. The red blood cells have a colorless spongy body or stroma which contains a respiratory pigment hemoglobin (Hb). Haemoglobin has very strong affinity for carbon monoxide forming a stable compound carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO). 

Life and death of RBCs: 

i) In adults, the RBCs are produced in the marrow of long bones, especially in the ribs, breast bone and ilium of hip girdle. 

ii) In an embryo they are produced in the liver and spleen. 

iii) The mature red blood cells have no nuclei. 

iv) The average life of an RBC is about 120 days. 

v) The old and weak red blood cells are destroyed in the spleen, liver and bone marrow. 

Mammalian Red Blood Cells: 

Mammalian red blood cells when mature circulate in the blood system and are devoid of certain organelles. They 

i) have no nucleus 

ii) no mitochondria 

iii) no endoplasmic reticulum 

*Abnormally increased number of RBCs is called Polycythaemia, and their abnormally decreased number is known as Erythropenia. 

(2) WHITE BLOOD CELLS (WBCs) – 

White blood cells, or leukocytes (leuko: white), differ from red blood cells in having a nucleus and not containing haemoglobin. Their number is much less, usually about 4000-8000 per mm³ of blood. 

Origin and life of WBCs: The WBCs are produced in red bone marrow, lymph nodes and sometimes even in liver and the spleen Their average life is about two weeks. 

Functions Of Leukocytes (WBCs) Body defence: 

1. Phagocytosis: This is a process in which most WBCs and particularly the neutrophils engulf particle-like solid substances, especially bacteria. 

2. Inflammation: Inflammation occurs due to the reaction of tissues to injury and to localized invasion of germs. 

3. Formation of antibodies 

(3) BLOOD PLATELETS (Thrombocytes) (Initiators of clotting of blood) 

Blood platelets are minute oval or round structures, non-nucleated, floating in the blood. These are about 200,000 to 400,000 per cu. mm. of blood in an adult. The platelets are derived from some giant cells called megakaryocytes in the red bone marrow. Their life span is 3 to 5 days and are destroyed mainly in the spleen. 

BLOOD TRANSFUSION AND BLOOD GROUPS (ABO and Rh systems) 

ABO System: 

According to the ABO system, the human blood is classified into four types - A, B, AB and O. Rh system: (Rh stands for Rhesus, our common monkey, in which the factor was first discovered). 

The Excretory System 

Excretion: 

The process of removal of chemical wastes (mainly nitrogenous wastes) from the body is known as 'excretion'. Excretion plays an important role in maintaining the homeostatic (steady state) condition of the body. 

Excretory System: 

Organs which are concerned with the formation, storage and elimination of urine constitute the 'excretory system'. Substances to be eliminated: 

1. Carbon dioxide and water - Carbon dioxide is eliminated through the lungs. - The extra water is released out of the body. in the form of sweat. 

2. Nitrogenous Wastes - These include urea, uric acid and ammonia. - Urea is excreted out through the kidneys. 

3. Excess salts such common salt (NaCl) and even some excess water-soluble vitamins (B and C) need to be eliminated. - Salts are mainly given out through the kidneys. 

4. Water is taken in with food and beverages, in large quantities. 

5. Bile pigments (chiefly yellow bilirubin) are the breakdown products of the hemoglobin of the dead RBCs. - Excreted in urine. 

The Excretory Organs: 

1. Kidneys: These are the primary excretory organs eliminating nitrogenous wastes in the form of urine. 2. Skin: Sweat excreted by the sweat glands of the skin primarily excrete water and sodium chloride. 

3. Lungs: They excrete carbon dioxide. 

4. Liver: Liver detoxifies ammonia by converting it to urea. 

Kidneys 

The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs located on either side of the backbone and protected by the last two ribs. 

A tube, the ureter, arises from the notch (hilum) connects behind with the urinary bladder. 

The front end of the ureter is somewhat expanded into the kidney and is called the pelvis. 

The urine produced in the kidneys collects in the urinary bladder to the outside of the body through the urethra. 

A sphincter (circular muscle) guards the opening of the bladder into the urethra and relaxes only at the time of urination (micturition) under an impulse from the brain. 

Internal Structure of the Kidneys 

A longitudinal section of the kidney shows two main regions-an outer dark cortex and an inner lighter medulla. 

The medulla is composed of a finely striped substance arranged in several conical pyramids. The apex of each pyramid is called papilla. 

The kidney is composed of an enormous number of minute tubules called uriniferous tubules or nephrons. 

These are the structural as well as functional units of the kidney. 

Structure of a Kidney Tubule 

Bowman's capsule is a thin-walled cup. 

The outer concavity of the cup lodges a knot-like mass of blood capillaries, called glomerulus. 

Proximal or first convoluted tubule (PCT) 

It is the starting convoluted region of the tubule. 

Middle U-shaped part (Loop of Henle) is shaped like a hair-pin. 

Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) 

It is the end part of the kidney tubule. It opens into a collecting duct. 

Blood supply to the Kidney Tubules: 

Each such arteriole enters a Bowman's capsule under the name of afferent arteriole. This afferent arteriole breaks into a number of capillaries. The reuniting capillaries of the glomerulus form the efferent arteriole. 

Functions of the Kidney - Production of Urine: 

The production of urine occurs in three major steps: 

(I) ultrafiltration 

(II) reabsorption 

(III) tubular secretion 

(I) Ultrafiltration 

The blood flows through the glomerulus under great pressure which is much greater than in the capillaries elsewhere. 

This filtration under extraordinary force is called ultrafiltration. 

The fluid entering the renal tubule is called the glomerular filtrate. 

The glomerular filtrate consists of water, urea, salts, glucose and other plasma solutes. 

(II) Reabsorption: 

The glomerular filtrate entering the renal tubule is not urine. 

It is an extremely dilute solution containing a lot of useful materials including glucose and some salts such as those of sodium. 

The normal concentration of the blood is not disturbed. 

This is called selective absorption. 

(III) Tubular Secretion: 

Certain substances like potassium (K+) and a large number of foreign chemicals are passed into the forming urine. 

This passage involves the activity of the cells of the tubular wall, and hence it is called tubular secretion. 

Physical properties of urine- - 

Colour: Clear yellow (due to pigment urochrome). 

Volume: 1 to 1.5 litres per day but varies. 

pH: 5 to 8 - Odour: ammonia-like 

Specific gravity: 1.003 to 1.035 

CONSTITUENTS OF URINE 

The normal human urine consists of about 95% of water and 5% of solid wastes dissolved in it.

Abnormal constituents in urine 

(i) Blood cells: Known as haematuria 

(ii) Glucose In a condition called glycosuria. 

(iii) Albumin: This condition is termed as albuminuria. 

(iv) Bile pigments: Due to anaemia, hepatitis (jaundice) or liver cirrhosis, urine may contain bile pigments. 

REGULATION OF URINE OUTPUT 

The pituitary gland and Diuresis (increased production of urine) - Concentration of the urine by water reabsorption is controlled by antidiuretic hormone (ADH) secreted by the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. 

OSMOREGULATION The kidney while removing wastes like urea from the blood also regulates its composition, i.e., the percentage of water and salts. This function is called osmoregulation it implies the regulation of osmotic pressure of the blood. 

ARTIFICIAL KIDNEY: If one kidney is damaged or removed for some reason, the other kidney alone is sufficient for excretory needs and the person can lead a normal life. Artificial kidney is a dialysis machine. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neuron: 

Our nervous system consists of brain, spinal cord, sense receptors and a whole lot of nerves. The brain and spinal cord are made up of neurons or nerve cells. 

Structure of the neuron: 

The three main parts of a neuron are the cell body, dendrites and axon. 

(i) The cell body (Perikaryon or Cyton) (peri : surrounding, karyon : nucleus) 

• It contains a well-defined nucleus, surrounded by granular cytoplasm. 

• It has all the cell organelles like other cells, only centrosome is absent because nerve cells have lost the ability to divide. 

(ii) Dendrites (dendron tree/branch): 

These are branched cytoplasmic projections of the cell body. They conduct nerve impulses to the cyton.

(iii) Axon: 

• It is a long process from the cell body. 

• It varies in size from a few millimeters to even more than one metre in length. 

Two major divisions of the Nervous System: 

1. Central Nervous System (CNS) includes the brain and the spinal cord contained within the vertebral column. 

2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes the nerves that emerge from and enter into the brain and spinal cord. 

The PNS consists of two subdivisions : 

A. Somatic nervous system (SNS) conveys information to skeletal (voluntary) muscles. 

B. Autonomic nervous system (ANS) includes a pair of chains of ganglia and nerves which control the involuntary actions of many internal organs (smooth muscles, heart muscles and glands). 

The Brain: 

The brain is a very delicate organ well protected inside the brain box or cranium of the skull.

Coverings: 

The brain is protected by 3 membranous coverings called meninges (meninx: membrane) which continue backwards on the spinal cord. 

(i) Dura mater - the outermost tough fibrous membrane (dura : tough, mater: mother). 

(ii) Arachnoid the thin delicate middle layer giving a web-like cushion (arachne : spider). 

(iii) Pia mater the innermost highly vascular membrane, richly supplied with blood (pia: tender). 

1) CEREBRUM (cerebrum: brain) 

The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain. It is divided into two (right and left) halves called cerebral hemispheres. Their outer surface is highly convoluted with ridges and grooves. Each cerebral hemisphere is hollow internally and the walls have two regions - an outer(cortex) and an inner portion (medulla). The outer portion (cortex) of the cerebrum contains cell bodies of the neurons and, being grayish in colour, is called the gray matter. . It is the layer of gray matter which is folded to form the convolutions. The folds are called gyri and the grooves are called sulci (creases). Such a system increases surface area to accommodate more nerve cells. 

2) CEREBELLUM ("little brain") 

The cerebellum is a much smaller area of the brain located just at the base and under the large cerebrum. It has no convolutions, but has numerous furrows. This also has an outer cortex made of gray matter. Centrally, it has white matter which, in a median section, appears like a branching tree. The main function of the cerebellum is to maintain 'balance' of the body and coordinate muscular activity. The impulse for performing a muscular act, originates in the cerebrum and not in the cerebellum. For example, if you stand up and walk, the impulse for this activity arises in the cerebrum (conscious part). The act of walking involves coordinated working of many muscles. Proper coordination and timing of their contraction and relaxation is the responsibility of the cerebellum. 

3) MEDULLA OBLONGATA 

The medulla oblongata is the lowest portion of the brain located at the base of the skull. It is roughly triangular and is continued behind as the spinal cord. Its function is to control the activities of the internal organs, for example, peristaltic movement of the alimentary canal, movement of breathing, beating of the heart and many other involuntary actions. Injury to the medulla generally results in death. 

Three Primary Regions of the Brain: 

All parts taken together, the brain may be said to consist of three primary regions forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. The various parts under each region and their principal functions are as follows: 

1. Forebrain: 

a) Cerebrum (cerebral hemispheres) (seat of intelligence, memory, consciousness, will power, voluntary actions). 

b) Diencephalon 

(i) Thalamus (relays pain and pressure impulses to cerebrum). 

(ii) Hypothalamus (controls the body temperature and pituitary). 

2. Midbrain: A small tubular part (reflexes involving eyes and ears). 

3. Hindbrain: 

a) Cerebellum (coordinates muscular act balance of the body). 

b) Pons located in the centre of the - below the cerebellum (carries impulses one hemisphere of the cerebellum to the hemisphere and coordinates muscular movements on both the sides of the body). 

c) Medulla oblongata (controls activities of internal organs, heart beat, breathing, etc.) 

The spinal cord 

The spinal cord extends from the medulla of the brain down almost the whole length of the backbone to end at the second lumbar vertebra and lies within the neural canal of the vertebrae. 

The internal structure of the spinal cord in a cross section. 

Here the arrangement of white and the matter is reversed from that in the brain. 

The matter containing the cell bodies of motor (efferent) and association neurons lies on the inner side and the white matter on the outer side. 

The white matter contains axons running longitudinally to and from the brain and even crossing from one side to the other. 

There is a small central canal in the centre which runs the entire length and is continuous with the cavities of the brain. 

It is also filled with cerebrospinal fluid which acts as a shock proof cushion and forms a medium for the exchange of food materials, waste products, and respiratory gases with neurons. 

Externally, the spinal cord is covered by the same three membranes dura mater, arachnoid and pia mater in continuation with those of the brain. 

Functions of the Spinal Cord 

The spinal cord is concerned with the following three functions: 

(i) Reflexes below the neck. 

(ii) Conducts sensory impulses from the skin and muscles to the brain. 

(iii) Conducts motor responses from the brain to muscles of the trunk and limbs. 

Reflexes (Involuntary Actions) 

The term “reflex” comes from the Latin word “reflexus” meaning reflected or directed back. 

Two types of actions which occur in our body are: 

1. Voluntary Actions 

2. Involuntary Actions 

Sense Organs

The sense organs enable us to be aware of the conditions of our external as well as internal environment. 

RECEPTORS 

Receptor is any specialized tissue or cell sensitive to a specific stimulus. 

(i) Mechanoreceptors - are receptors for touch, pressure of skin due to mechanical change. 

(ii) Chemoreceptors - receptors of taste of the and smell of the nose due to chemical influences 

(iii) Photoreceptors - are rods and cones of the retina of eye due to light. 

(iv) Thermoreceptors are heat and cold receptors in the skin, due to change in temperature. 

(v) Phonoreceptors - receptors for sound/hearing. 

THE EYES 

Orbits: The two eyes are located in deep sockets or orbits on the front side of the head. 

Eyelids: protect the outer (front) surface of the eyes and can shut out light. 

Eyebrows: prevent the rain drops or the trickling perspiration from getting into the eyes. 

Tear glands: pour the secretion over the front surface. 

Tear ducts: A nasolacrimal duct conducts the secretion into the nasal cavity. 

Functions of Tears: 

1. Lubricate the surface of the eye. 

2. Wash away dust particles. 

3. Help in killing germs. 

4. Communicate emotions 

Conjunctiva: 

It is a thin membrane covering the entire front part of the eye. 

Structure of the Eyeball: 

(1) outer sclerotic 

(2) middle choroid 

(3) inner retina 

YELLOW SPOT - 

The area of best vision The region of brightest vision and also of the color vision. Yellow spot is the place of best vision of the normal eye. This is the reason why you move your eyes from word to word as you read a line through a printed page. 

BLIND SPOT - 

The area of no vision There are no sensory cells here and, therefore, this is the point of no vision. 

Lens: The lens is a transparent, flexible, biconvex crystalline body located just behind the pupil. The lens is collectively held in position by fibres called the suspensory ligament, which attaches it to the ciliary body. 

TWO CHAMBERS OF THE EYE 

1. AQUEOUS CHAMBERS 

2. VITREOUS CHAMBERS 

Common Defects of the Eye: 

1. Near or short-sightedness (Myopia): This defect can be corrected by suitable concave (diverging) lens which causes the light rays to diverge before they strike the lens of the eye. 

2. Far or long-sightedness (Hyperopia, old term Hypermetropia): A convex (converging) lens is required to correct it. 

3. Astigmatism: This is corrected by cylindrical lenses. 

4. Presbyopia: This again is corrected by a convex lens. 

5. Cataract: It can be corrected by surgically removing the lens, and by using spectacles with highly convex lenses. 

6. Night-blindness: This is usually due to the deficiency of Vitamin A. 

7. Color blindness: This is due to a genetic defect. 

8. Corneal opacities: defects can cause anything from minor irritation to vision problems and even blindness. 

9. Squint: Surgery and suitable exercise can correct these defects. 

THE EAR - 

ORGAN FOR HEARING AND BALANCE 

The human ear is concerned with two functions, hearing and body balance. 

It has three main divisions: 

(i) outer ear 

(ii) middle ear

(iii) inner ear. 

Functions of the Ear: 

The internal ear is involved in two sensory functions: 

A. HEARING 

Organ of Corti 

B. BALANCING 

Static: utriculus and sacculus 

Dynamic: ampulla 

The Endocrine System 

Endocrine glands secrete certain chemicals known as hormones. Hormones are extremely important secretions for the regulation of body activities. 

Hormones 

are secretions from specific cells or glands in the body, and are carried to all parts through blood, but their effect is produced in one or more specific parts (target organ or cells) only. Most hormones are secreted by special glands, the endocrine glands (endo: inside, crine: separate) meaning "secrete internally", also called ductless glands because their secretions are poured directly into the blood and not through any special duct. 

Endocrine System 

Endocrine system consists of several glands/glandular cells which bring about the overall common function of chemical coordination in the body. They activate each other and work as a system of organs called endocrine system. A system is defined as a group of organs performing an overall common function. Endocrine glands secrete certain chemicals called hormones. 

General Properties of Hormones: 

1. Hormones are secreted from their source (an endocrine gland) directly into the blood. 

2. They act on target organs or cells usually away from their source. 

3. Hormones are not stored in the body and are excreted from the system. 

4. Hormones produced in one species usually show similar influence in other species. 

Endocrine Glands: 

The principle endocrine glands in the human body are: 

1. Adrenal 

2. Pancreas 

3. Thyroid 

4. Pituitary 

1. Adrenal Glands 

The adrenal glands are like caps on the top of each kidney (ad: near, renal: kidney). Each adrenal gland consists of two parts – 

(i) a central medulla 

(ii) a peripheral cortex 

i) Adrenal Medulla secretes adrenaline. Adrenaline is a hormone, which prepares the body to meet any emergency situation, for "fight" i.e. to face danger or for "flight", to run away from it. 

ii) Adrenal Cortex secretes many hormones but the best known hormone is cortisone. The cortical hormones are categorised as: 

a) Mineralocorticoids: regulates mineral metabolism, specially Na+ and K+ ions. 

b) Glucocorticoids: regulates carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism. 

2. Pancreas 

Pancreas is both a duct gland as well as a ductless gland. As a ductless gland, it has special groups of hormone-secreting cells called/ Islets of Langerhans. The islet cells produce three hormones insulin, glucagon and somatostatin. 

(1) Insulin secreted by beta cells checks rise of sugar level in blood. 

Under Section of Insulin 

Insufficient secretion of insulin causes diabetes (more correctly diabetes mellitus or hyperglycemia). The word "mellitus" means honey, referring to the passage of sugar (glucose) in urine. 

Over Section of Insulin 

Over-secretion of insulin causes hypoglycemia and coma. 

3. Thyroid 

The two lobes are joined by a narrow isthmus (interconnection). It secretes two hormones thyroxine and calcitonin. Thyroxine regulates the basal metabolism, i.e., the rate of cellular oxidation resulting in heat production at rest. 

4. Pituitary 

The pituitary gland is a small projection (about the size of a pea) which hangs from the base of the mid-brain below hypothalamus. It is popularly called the master gland because it seems to control practically all other endocrine glands. 

A. HORMONES FROM ANTERIOR PITUITARY 

1. Growth hormone (GH) is essential for normal growth. It is also called somatotropin (somatic: body, tropic: stimulating). 

2. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) activates thyroid to secrete thyroxin. 

3. Gonad stimulating (Gonadotropic) hormones regulate the activities of the testes and ovaries. 

4. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) regulates the activity of adrenal cortex. 

B. HORMONES FROM POSTERIOR PITUITARY 

The posterior lobe produces two hormones named vasopressin and oxytocin. 

1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also called vasopressin. 

2. Oxytocin (Gk. oxys: sharp/quick, tokos : childbirth) stimulates vigorous contractions of the uterus in a pregnant mother

COMPUTER PRE BOARD QUESTION PAPER

 1 ST PRE BOARD EXAMINATION 2021-22

SUBJECT – Computer Applications 

CLASS – X 

===========================================================

Answers to this paper must be written on paper provided separately. 

You will not be allowed to write during the first 10 minutes. 

This time is to be spent in reading the question paper. 

The time given at the head of this paper is the time allowed for writing the answers. 

Attempt all questions from section A and any four questions from section B. 

The intended marks for questions or parts of questions are given in the brackets. [ ] 

Select the correct option for each of the following questions. 

==================================================================

Section – A [10 Marks] 
(Attempt all the questions) 

Question (1) 

Choose the correct answers to the questions from the given options. (Do not copy the question, Write the correct answer only.)                                                                                                    [10] 

(i) The value returned by Integer.parseInt(“-321”) is……….. 

     (a) -321 (b) 321.0 (c) 321 (d) “321” 

(ii) In which package is the wrapper class integer available? 

      (a) java.io (b) java.awt (c) java.util (d) java.lang 

(iii) Which of the following is a primitive data type ? 

       (a) int (b) float (c) char (d) All of these 

(iv) An instance variable……………. 

      (a) Needs an instance to access it 

      (b) Does not need an instance to access it 

      (c) Can be accessed via the class name

      (d) Is declared with static keyword 

(v) The class which get inherited is knows as ……………. 

      (a) Parent class (b) Super class (c) Base class (d) All of these 

(vi) Which of the following statements is true? 

      (a) Binary search is less efficient than the sequential search 

      (b) Binary search is less efficient than the linear search 

      (c) Binary search is more efficient than the sequential search 

      (d) Binary search is as efficient as the sequential search 

(vii) Which element is num[9] of the array num ? 

        (a) 8 th (b) 9 th (c) 10th (d) 11th 

(viii) The trim() method of the string class removes ……………….. 

        (a) Leading spaces only 

        (b) Spaces in between words 

        (c) Trailing spaces only 

        (d) Leading and trailing spaces 

(ix) The index of string………………… 

      (a) Range from 0 to the length-1 of the string 

      (b) Range from 0 to the length of the string 

      (c) Range from 1 to the length of the string 

      (d) Range from 1 to the length-1of the string 

(x) The return type of the equals() method is………. 

      (a) int (b) char (c) boolean (d) void 

SECTION B [40 Marks] 

(Attempt any four questions.) 

Question (2)

 Define a class to declare an integer array of size n and accept the elements into the array. Search for an element input by the user using binary search technique, display the element if it is found, otherwise display the message “NO Such Element”.                                                                                            [10] 

Question (3) 

Write a program to accept 20 integer numbers in a single dimensional array. Find and display the following: [10] 

(a) Number of even numbers

(b) Number of odd numbers 

(c) Number of multiples of 4.

Question (4) 

Write a program to accept „n‟ values in a single dimensional array and display the sum of all such members which are divisible by both 2 and 3. [10] 

Question (5) 

Write a program to accept a string and display: [10] 

(a) The number of lower case characters 

(b) The number of upper case characters 

(c) The number of special characters 

(d) The number of digits present in the string. 

Question (6) 

Define a class to accept a string, convert it into uppercase and check whether the string is a palindrome or not. A palindrome is a word which reads the same backward as forward. [10] 

For example RADAR, CIVIC, LEVEL 

Question (7) 

Write a program to accept a string and change the case of each letter of the string. Display the new string. 

For example

Input= WelComE TO School 

Output =wELcOMe to sCHOOL

ICSE ENGLISH LANGUAGE ESSAY NOTES PART 1

INTRODUCTION

The skill of writing essays is an essential tool if you are to achieve the kind of grade you want in the courses you are studying. This is true whether you are studying at GCSE, AS or A levels at school or college, or trying to gain a degree at university. 

There is no single, foolproof method of successful essay-writing. However, the advice and the practical guidance you will receive in this book will provide you with all you need to know about how to improve your grade assessments by putting into practice some simple, but invaluable, principles of essay writing. 

These approaches will work for you whether you are facing assessment in timed examinations and/or being judged by coursework assignments. In essence, the principles of essay-writing apply to both situations: when you are under the pressure of an examination room, or, at home or in college with more time to produce your assignment essay. 

There is no doubt at all that the people who do best in assessments of all kinds are those who understand exactly what is required of them and who manage to deliver exactly that. In other words, it is not just what you know, but how you apply that knowledge when you are being assessed that finally counts. 

In the case of examination, you have to be effective at sitting examination in order to maximize your grade potential. Like almost everything else, there is an art to taking exams. In other words, what you are being examined on when you sit an exam is your ability to sit examinations. 

Equally, with coursework, you have to know how to present yourself in the most favourable light to the assessor. There has been a good deal of controversy about the role of coursework in examination assessment and how important a component for the basis of a grade award it should be. Problems of plagiarism from the internet and how to ascertain that students’ coursework has indeed been produced by the students themselves without undue assistance have cast a cloud over the whole issue. However, it is highly likely that some element of coursework, however reduced, will remain an essential element of examination assessment. Thus, it will continue to be essential for examination candidates to produce coherent, well-written and structured essays for their coursework. 

Essay-writing is, then, crucial in both instances: exams and continual assessment. In most subjects, a talent for essay-writing is essential to achieve high grades. Candidates who fall down in this aspect of their work will do harm to their own chances of achieving the higher grades. It is as important as that, not some optional extra you can add onto your knowledge of a subject. Essay-writing skills are an essential component of being a successful student at all levels. 

My belief is that the basic essay-writing skills are not that difficult to acquire. The reason why so many students fail to acquire these skills is that not enough attention has been paid to teaching them. It is inevitable that schools, colleges and universities spend most of their time teaching the core subject-matter of a course, but hardly any time in advising students how to put their ideas down on paper in the form of an essay. Yet, these skills are neither obscure nor too complex for the average student to learn. This book will show you a method of essay-writing in several simple steps and will provide sample essays. Once you have learned this method, you should be in a much stronger position to face up to the demands of essay-writing in your various courses and across the subject range.

CHAPTER 1

PLANNING YOUR ESSAY 

Why should you make a plan for your essays? Why ‘waste time’ doing that when you are in a pressured examination situation or pushed to produce a coursework assignment? 

Answer: Because it will pay off in the long run in terms of the relevance, organisation and clarity of your essay. 

Think about occasions when in everyday conversation you are asked your opinion about something or about how to do something. Isn’t your answer more likely to be well-received when you give the matter some thought before you jump in with both feet? 

It is the same with essays, whether they are for coursework assignments or timed answers in classroom or examination situations. A little prior thought which is transformed into brief notes will pay dividends.

WHAT ARE YOU BEING ASKED TO DO? 

Whatever the form of the assignment you are given, you have to focus on the specific task you are being asked to perform: not what you would like the task or subject to be, but the actual task the question is asking you to perform. Forget the fact that you know a great deal about particular 1 aspects of a subject and focus your energies on answering on the exact topic you have been asked about. You don’t make up the assignments you are set, your examiners do! So give them what they want, not the answer you would like to write, but the answer you’ve been asked to write. 

That means reading the words of the question or the assignment with great care. Remember, give the examiners what they want, a response to the task they have set. Many a student has come a cropper by misreading the assignment or question and banging down almost all they know about a subject, regardless of whether it is relevant or not. Your essay may be absolutely brilliant in its own way, but if it’s not an essay written in answer to the set task, then you can kiss a good grade goodbye.

Answer the specific question that is set, not some other question that you might like to be answering. Relevance is all! 

EXAMPLES

• Consider this literature question. 

Why does Shakespeare’s Hamlet delay carrying out his revenge for the murder of his father? 

What are you being asked to do here? 

To help you decide that, a useful approach is to underline three or four key words from the question. Why? Because that will focus your thinking on the approach you need to take and concentrate your mind on giving the examiners what they want.

Why does Shakespeare’s Hamlet delay carrying out his revenge for the murder of his father? 

Consider the words that have been underlined from the question. Underlining ‘Why’ reminds you are being asked for an explanation of Hamlet’s motives. 

Underlining ‘Hamlet’ reminds you it is Hamlet’s motives for his behaviour that are relevant, not the motives of some other character. 

Underlining ‘delay’ reminds you the question is about the reasons for his delay in carrying out the revenge. 

Underlining ‘revenge’ focuses on the subject of the task that Hamlet has been given. 

• Consider this history assignment. 

What were the origins of the First World War? 

What are you being asked to do here? What is your task? How can you give the examiners an answer in essay form that the examiners want? To help you decide, underline key words from the question. 

What were the origins of the First World War? 

By underlining ‘origins’ and ‘First World War’, you have focused your thinking on the events that led to the outbreak of the war, not some other aspect of the war or the course of the war itself. You may know an enormous amount about the First World War as a whole, but the only relevant information you need to answer this question are the reasons for the outbreak of the war. Don’t show off the breadth of your knowledge just for the sake of it. Pick and choose well. Sift through the knowledge you have and apply it in a relevant manner to the assignment. 

• Consider this Media Studies question. 

Should the government intervene to prevent different media (newspapers, magazines, television and radio channels) from being owned and controlled by a few media moguls? 

Consider what you are being asked to do here. What are the key areas you would need to focus on? Would these underlined words help you to focus on the task that has been set? 

Should the government intervene to prevent different media (newspapers, magazines, television and radio channels) from being largely owned and controlled by a few media moguls? 

More words have been underlined than in the two examples above because it is a longer and more complex question. The words ‘government intervene’ have been underlined to focus on who or what should be or should not be intervening. The words ‘different media’ emphasises that you are being asked to consider several forms of media. The words ‘owned and controlled’ reminds you the question is about who holds the power in the media, and ‘few media moguls’ tells you to deal with the question of media power residing in the hands of a few people. 

By underlining these key words, you should have focused your thoughts on the specific question you have been asked to discuss. 

Whether it be a coursework assignment or a question in a examination paper, the best way to focus your thinking at the start is by underlining the key words of the question or assignment.

PRACTICE 

1. In the following assignments or questions, underline the key words that would help you focus on what exactly you are being asked to do. 

a) Argue the case for or against the banning of smoking in all public places. 

b) Which is your favourite character from the set books you have read? Give your reasons for your choice and an analysis of how the character is represented by the author. 

c) How did the Vietnam War expose some of the rifts in American society of the 1960s and 70s? 

d) What does the term ‘post-feminism’ mean and do you agree or disagree that we are now living in a ‘post-feminist era’? 

2. Look at some examination papers in different subject areas and consider the questions. Underline the key words that would have helped you answer them. 

MAKING A PLAN 

Essays must have a planned structure. This is important for you, the writer of the essay. If you have a clear structure in your own mind, then it will be easier for you to organise your content and present it in a way that will represent your knowledge of the topic in the best possible light. 

However, it is equally important for the reader of your essay. This will be the teacher or examiner(s) who will have to read your essay. It is essential that you make things as easy and understandable for them as possible. If you don’t have the assessors on your side because you have made things difficult for them by your lack of essay organisation, focus, clarity and continuity, then it is highly likely they will down-grade your essays. Meet the assessors more than halfway. Make their job easy for them. Impress them with your essay structure and your methodical way of setting about the set assignments.

Any essay has to have an overall structure and make sense as a whole. However, for the purpose of instilling a structured approach to essaywriting, it is useful to think of an essay as consisting of three main sections: 

1. the opening paragraph 

2. the development or body of the essay 

3. the conclusion. 

As you would expect, the second section, the development or body of the essay, will be by far the longest of the three. However, the opening and conclusion of the essay are equally important if you are to impress your assessor. Without this basic shape to your essay, your reader will query whether you have supplied a coherent response to the set task. 

From now on, approach your essays with this structure in mind: an essay must have a definite opening, a considered development and an emphatic conclusion. All three sections have to be integral to the whole and be linked, but for the purpose of inculcating good practice, think in terms of essays with three parts to them. The body of the essay will be much the longer section of the three, but this main section must be preceded by an opening section and succeeded by a closing section. 

PLANNING AND WRITING COURSEWORK ASSIGNMENTS 

Clearly, you have much more time to make a plan for an essay answer when you are writing it for a coursework assignment than when you are in an examination or timed essay situation. As you have time at your disposal, it would be silly not to use it to create a structure for your essay in the form of notes and a step-by-step sequence. 

There are various ways of how to do this: the important thing is for you to find a way that suits you. Having read the wording of the assignment carefully and underlined the key words, as advised in Golden Rule 2, you can now move to the next stage: making brief notes that will help you write your essay using relevant facts and analysis in a coherent structured manner. Begin by jotting down brief phrases that come to mind that seem relevant to answering the assignment. 

Once you have done that preliminary work and you have chosen what is relevant to the assignment, you should then make a plan of how best to employ the notes to create a structured essay. To do this you need to work out a paragraph structure for your essay: 

1. introduction: opening paragraph(s) 

2. first paragraph of the development or ‘body’ of the essay 

3. a linked continuation of this development 

4. further paragraphs as required 

5. conclusion: a concluding paragraph. 

The overall objective is to impress your reader (the person who is going to assess your work) that you have written a relevant, coherent and wellstructured essay that answers the question that has been set. 

In writing coursework assignment essays, it will pay to make a detailed plan before you start putting it down on paper. 

EXAMINATIONS 

In examination situations, where you are working against the clock and you have several questions to answer, you do not have the same time at your disposal to make such a detailed plan. However, despite the urgency that inevitably is part-and-parcel of any examination situation, it will be profitable to spend a few minutes making an essay plan, rather than plunging straight into writing your answers. Remember, in examinations, it is not how much you write, but the quality of what you write that will bring high grades. ‘How much did you write on question 3?’ is a very common enquiry of students to one another after the examination has ended. The implication of this question is that the longer your answer and the more pages of the answer book you have filled, the better you will have performed. That is decidedly not the case. An examination is not a competition among students to see who can slap down as many words as possible. There is absolutely no point in filling up booklet after booklet with answers that are not relevant or structured. As a former examiner, it was occasionally my sad duty to put a line through page after page of essay answers because they were totally irrelevant to the question.

 Length of answer, then, is not the be-all and end-all. It is as well to remember that in any examination, you will normally only be able to use a fraction of what you know about any given subject. You have to reconcile yourself to that fact and decide what is most relevant to the assigned task from your body of knowledge about a given topic. Making brief notes before attempting an essay answer will help you to decide what is relevant from your overall well of knowledge and what is not. 

When you have read the question and underlined the key words to focus your thoughts on what it is you are being asked to do, make brief notes in the form of words and phrases to help you focus further. These can be fairly random. Then take these notes and put them in the order you want to deal with them. 

Now you have a structured approach to your examination essay. How long should you spend on this planning? My advice is not longer than five to seven minutes if the time allotted to writing the essay is an hour or less. You can get carried away making so many notes that you deprive yourself of vital time in writing the actual essay answer. 

Allow time within an examination situation to make a brief structured plan for each of the essay answers you attempt.  

PRACTICE

1. Look at some examination papers. Choose the questions you would have felt confident in answering and make a brief plan for your answers, bearing in mind the restricted time at your disposal. 

2. Take some coursework assignments and make detailed plans of how you would write a relevant, coherent and well-structured response to the set task.